BOOK X

1. Therefore, as these men were retiring from the administration of the state, Constantius and Galerius were chosen as Augusti, and the Roman world was divided between them in such a way that Constantius received Gaul, Italy, and Africa, and Galerius received Illyricum, Asia, and the East; two Caesars were also selected. Constantius, however, content with the dignity of Augustus, refused the burden of managing Italy and Africa. He was a distinguished and very courteous man who favored the people of the provinces and private citizens keeping their wealth, and who did very little to benefit the treasury, saying that it was better for the public wealth to be held in private hands than to be confined in one place. Moreover, he lived in such a modest manner that if he had to serve a feast for a greater number of friends than usual on holidays, his dining hall would be furnished with silverware that had been sought out door to door from private citizens. He was not only beloved but venerated by the Gauls because, while he was governor, they avoided the suspicious prudence of Diocletian and the bloody rashness of Maximianus. He died at Eboracum in Britain in the thirteenth year of his reign and was enrolled among the gods.

2. Galerius was a man both well-mannered and highly skilled in the art of war. When he learned that he was also to receive the administration of Italy with the permission of Constantius, he chose two Caesars: Maximinus, whom he appointed to the East, and Severus, to whom he gave Italy. He himself remained in Illyricum; but when Constantius died, Constantine, his son from a previous marriage to a woman of obscure birth, was chosen emperor in Britain and became a very desirable ruler in place of his father. In Rome meanwhile, the Praetorian Guard, having revolted, pronounced as Augustus, Maxentius, the son of Herculius, who was staying at the Villa Publica not far from the city. Once this was announced, Maximianus Herculius, excited by the prospect of regaining the position that he had reluctantly given up, hurried to Rome from Lucania — the retirement place that he had chosen as a private citizen where he was growing old in a most pleasant region. He urged Diocletian as well, through letters which Diocletian considered folly, to take back the power that he had relinquished. Against the revolt of the Praetorians and Maxentius, Severus Caesar was sent by Galerius and came to Rome with the army. As he was besieging the city, he was treacherously deserted by his soldiers. This increased the strength of Maxentius and confirmed his power. Severus was slain at Ravenna while fleeing.

3. After these events, Herculius Maximianus endured insurrection and abuse from the soldiers when he attempted to strip his son Maxentius of power in an assembly of the armies. From there he departed for Gaul, pretending that he had been expelled by his son in order that he might join up with his son-in-law Constantine, and plotting, if the opportunity presented itself, to kill him. Constantine was ruling in Gaul with the overwhelming approval of both the soldiers and the people of the province, having cut to pieces the Franks and Alamanni and having captured their kings, whom, when he put on a magnificent show of games, he threw to the wild beasts. Therefore, when the plot was exposed by Herculius’ daughter Fausta, who revealed it to her husband Constantine, Herculius fled and was killed in Massalia, where he was preparing to set sail to his son. He met with a well-deserved ending, for he was a man inclined to every type of violence and savagery, and was treacherous, troublesome, and totally lacking in civility.

4. During this time, Licinius, born in Dacia, was made emperor by Galerius. He was known to Galerius by longtime acquaintance, and also as being energetic in work and reliable in duty during the war that Galerius waged against Narses. The death of Galerius followed immediately afterwards. Thus, at this time, the government was held by four new emperors: Constantine and Maxentius, the sons of Augusti; and Licinius and Maximinus, men new to high rank. However, Constantine, in the fifth year of his reign, started a civil war against Maxentius and beat his forces in many battles. Finally, he conquered Maxentius himself (who was terrorizing the nobility by every type of brutality) at the Milvian Bridge in Rome and gained control of Italy. Not much afterwards in the East, Maximinus, who was trying to overthrow Licinius, prevented his own impending destruction by an accidental death near Tarsus.

5. Constantine, a remarkable man who strove to accomplish all things that he set his mind to and who aspired to rule the entire world, made war against Licinius, although they had close ties and were related through marriage; for his sister Constantia had married Licinius. First, Constantine overwhelmed him by surprise near Cibalae in Pannonia Secunda, where Licinius was making great preparations for war. Then, having gained control of Dardania, Moesia, and Macedonia, he seized numerous provinces.

6. They then fought various wars between them, and peace was made and broken. Finally, Licinius surrendered after being defeated in a land and sea battle near Nicomedia. He was slain as a private citizen in Thessalonica, in violation of a sacred oath. At this time, the Roman state was ruled by one Augustus and three Caesars, an occurrence which had never happened before, as the sons of Constantine were in control of Gaul, the East, and Italy. But due to the arrogance of success, Constantine changed from his former pleasant disposition. He first persecuted his own relatives, killing his own son, an excellent man, and the son of his sister, a good-natured youth, then soon his wife, and later, numerous friends.

7. He was a man comparable to the best emperors early in his reign, to mediocre ones towards the end. Innumerable talents of the mind and body were evident in him. He was very eager for military glory and enjoyed good fortune in war, but his good fortune did not surpass his diligence; for after the civil war, he defeated the Goths at various times, and upon granting them peace at last, he left the memory of great kindness among the barbarian tribes. He was devoted to peaceful arts and liberal studies, and eager to earn popularity, which he sought for himself from all by his generosity and docility. He was hesitant with some friends but excellent to the rest, not passing any opportunity to make them richer or more illustrious.

8. He proposed many laws, some of which were good and fair, some harsh, but most superfluous. He was the first to endeavor to elevate the status of a city named after himself to such a height that it rivaled Rome. While undertaking a war against the Parthians, who were then harassing Mesopotamia, he died, in the thirty-first year of his reign and the sixty-sixth year of his life, at the Villa Publica in Nicomedia. His death was announced by a hairy star, which the Greeks call a “comet,” of extraordinary size which shined for a long time. He gained enrollment among the gods.

9. He left his three sons — Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, and the son of his brother, Dalmatius Caesar, as successors. However, Dalmatius Caesar, who was of excellent character and not at all unlike his uncle, was killed by a military faction. Constantius, his cousin, allowed this to happen but did not order it. Afterwards, Constantine, having started a war against his brother Constans and having attacked him rashly at Aquileia, was killed by the generals of Constans. Thus, the state returned to having two Augusti. The reign of Constans was energetic and just  for a long time. Then, when his health became poor, and he came under the influence of wicked friends, he began to commit serious offenses. When he became intolerable to the people of the provinces and unpopular with the soldiers, he was slain by the faction of Magnentius. He died not far from Spain in a fort named Helena, in the sixteenth year of his reign and thirtieth year of his life, but not before accomplishing many things with vigor in military service. He was feared throughout his entire life by the army, although not for any great cruelty.

10. Constantius had a different fortune. He endured many great misfortunes at the hands of the Persians. Towns were often captured, cities besieged, and armies slaughtered. He won no battles against Shapur, although he lost an almost certain victory near Singara due to the headstrong spirit of the soldiers, who demanded seditiously, foolishly, and contrary to the custom of war, to enter battle as the day was ending. After the death of Constans, while Magnentius was in possession of Italy, Africa, and Gaul, Illyricum revolted, and Vetranio was elected to the throne by the consensus of the soldiers. They chose him as emperor to defend Illyricum when he was already an old man and beloved by all for the length and success of his military service. He was an honorable man of the old customs and delightful civility, but so uneducated in the liberal arts that he did not learn even the first rudiments of literature until he was old and already emperor.

11. Vetranio’s power was taken from him by Constantius, who started a civil war to avenge the death of his brother. In a new and unusual way, Vetranio was compelled to put aside the imperial insignia by the will of the soldiers. There was also an uprising in Rome at this time. Nepotian, the son of Constantine’s sister, attempted to assert his claim to the throne with a band of gladiators. After his initial savagery, he met with a fitting end, for on the twenty-eighth day, he was crushed by the generals of Magnentius and was punished. His head was carried around the city on a spear, and there were severe proscriptions and massacres of the nobility.

12. Not much afterwards, Magnentius was defeated in battle near Mursa and was almost captured. In this battle, vast resources of the Roman Empire, which would have been suitable for any external war and could have provided many triumphs and much security, were consumed. Soon, Gallus, the son of Constantius’ uncle, was appointed by Constantius as Caesar to the East. Magnentius, having been defeated in several battles, took his own life near Lugdunum, in the third year and seventh month of his reign, as did his brother, whom he had sent as Caesar to watch over Gaul, at Senonae.

13. Also during this time, Gallus Caesar was slain by Constantius after many cruel deeds. He was savage by nature and would have been quite prone to tyranny had he been allowed to rule in his own right. Silanus, who was revolting in Gaul, was killed as well within thirty days. At this time, Constantius was the sole leader and Augustus of the Roman Empire.

14. Soon, after giving his sister in marriage to his cousin Julian (the brother of Gallus), he sent Julian as Caesar to Gaul. This was a time when the barbarians had stormed many towns and besieged others. There was horrible destruction everywhere, and the Roman Empire was tottering on the brink of disaster. With modest forces, Julian killed vast numbers of the Alamanni near Argentoratum, a city of Gaul. He captured their most distinguished king and recovered Gaul. Afterwards, Julian again had great accomplishments against the barbarians. The Germans were pushed beyond the Rhine, and the Roman Empire was restored to its former boundaries.

15. Not much later, when the German armies were being withdrawn from the defense of Gaul, Julian was made emperor by the will of the soldiers. After the span of a year, Julian set out to occupy Illyricum while Constantius was engaged in war with the Parthians. After learning of this, Constantius, while returning to the civil war, died on the march between Cilicia and Cappadocia, in the thirty-eighth year of his reign and forty-fifth year of his life. He gained enrollment among the gods. He was a gentle man of admirable mental calmness who was too trusting in his friends and relatives, and later, too obedient to his wives. In the early years of his reign, he conducted himself with great modesty. He enriched his friends and allowed none to go unhonored whose services he found industrious. He was somewhat inclined to severity if the suspicion of revolt was aroused in him, but mild the rest of the time. His fortune in war was more worthy of praise in civil wars than in foreign ones.

16. Henceforth, Julian gained control of affairs, and after vast preparation, launched a war against the Parthians. I too was present in this expedition. He accepted the surrender of, or took by force, several towns and strongholds of the Persians. He laid waste Assyria and had a fixed camp for a long time near Ctesiphon. As he was returning victorious, he entered several battles rashly and was killed by the hand of an enemy, on June 26th, in the seventh year of his reign, in the thirty-second year of his life, and was enrolled among the gods. He was an admirable man who would have governed the state with distinction had the fates allowed it. He was especially well-educated in liberal disciplines and so learned in Greek, that his knowledge of Latin did not compare. He possessed great and ready eloquence, a tenacious memory, and in certain respects, was more similar to a philosopher. He was kind to his friends, but less diligent than such a chief ought to have been; for there were some who damaged his reputation. He was most just towards the people of the provinces and exercised restraint on taxes as much as possible. He was civil to all and had only moderate concern for the treasury. He was eager for glory but too spirited in its pursuit. He was quite repressive of the Christian religion, but abstained from shedding blood, and was not unlike Marcus Aurelius, whom he was eager to emulate.

17. After him, Jovian, who was then serving as a bodyguard, was selected to rule by the will of the army. He was known to the soldiers more for the excellent reputation of his father than for anything he had done. Since things were in turmoil at this time (the army was struggling from a lack of provisions and Jovian had been defeated in two battles by the Persians), he made peace, an ignoble but indeed necessary peace, with Shapur. He was penalized in territory, giving up part of the Roman Empire. This occurrence, in the nearly one thousand, one hundred and eighteen years since the founding of the Roman Empire, had never happened before him. Although our legions were sent under the yoke at Caudium by Pontius Telesinus, near Numantia in Spain, and in Numidia, no territory was surrendered. This condition of peace would not have been totally reprehensible if he had wished, when he renewed his strength, to break the treaty, as was done by the Romans in all those wars which I have mentioned; for wars were waged immediately against the Samnites, Numantians, and Numidians, and the peace was not ratified. But Jovian, as long as he feared a rival in power, thought too little of glory while he remained in the East. After undertaking a march and heading towards Illyricum, he died suddenly on the borders of Galatia. He was a man who in other times was neither unenergetic nor unwise.

18. Many are of the opinion that he passed away from acute indigestion, for he had indulged in sumptuous dishes while dining. Others believed it was from the odor of his bedroom, which was dangerous to one resting in it because of a recent coating of limestone. Still others attributed it to too many charcoals, many of which he had ordered to be piled high due to the severe cold. He died in the seventh month of his reign, on February 17th, in the thirty-third year of his life. Thanks to the kindness of the emperors who succeeded him, he was enrolled among the gods; for he was quite inclined to civility and very liberal by nature.

This was the state of the Roman Empire when this same Jovian, along with Varronianus, were consuls, in the one thousand, one hundred and eighteenth year since the founding of the city. Since we have arrived at renowned chiefs worthy of veneration, I will put an end to this work, as the remaining things must be told in a loftier style. I am not so much setting them aside now as reserving them for a higher effort of writing.

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