BOOK VIII

1. In the eight hundred and fiftieth year after the founding of the city, during the consulship of Vetus and Valens, the Roman state returned to a most prosperous state after fortuitously being entrusted to good chiefs; for Nerva, a man of moderate nobility who was self-disciplined and energetic in private life, succeeded the destructive tyrant Domitian. He was made emperor as a very old man through the efforts of Petronius Secundus, the praetorian prefect, and Parthenius, Domitian’s assassin. Nerva conducted himself very fairly and civilly. He looked after the state with divine foresight by adopting Trajan. He died in Rome one year, four months, and eight days into his reign, at the age of seventy-two, and was enrolled among the gods.

2. Ulpius Crinitus Trajan succeeded him. He was born at Italica in Spain, from a family more ancient than renowned, for his father was the first consul from it. He was made emperor near Agrippina in Gaul. He managed the state in such a manner that he is deservedly ranked above all other emperors. He was unusually courteous and brave. He expanded far and wide the Roman Empire’s borders, which after the time of Augustus, had been defended rather than honorably enlarged. He rebuilt cities in Germany across the Rhine. After defeating Decebalus, he subjugated Dacia and made a province in those lands across the Danube that the Taifali, Victohali, and Tervingi now possess. That province extended one thousand miles in circumference.

3. He recovered Armenia, which the Parthians had seized, killing Parthamasires, who was in control of it. He appointed a king to the Albani. He received in allegiance the kings of the Iberi, Sarmatians, Bosporans, Arabians, Osdroeni, and Colchians. He seized the lands of the Cardueni and Marcomedi, as well as Anthemusium — a celebrated region of Persia, and the cities of Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon. He defeated and subjugated the Messenii. He advanced all the way to the borders of India and the Red Sea, where he made three provinces — Armenia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia, including those tribes that border Madena. Afterwards, he reduced Arabia to the status of a province. He built a fleet on the Red Sea for the purpose of laying waste the lands of India.

4. However, his civility and self-control surpassed his military glory. He treated everyone as an equal, in Rome and throughout the provinces, often visiting friends who were sick or celebrating feast days, giving banquets for them in return regardless of rank, and accompanying them in their carriages. He harassed none of the senators and did nothing unjust to increase the treasury. He was kind to everyone, and both publicly and privately enriched and increased the honors of those of even moderate acquaintance. He constructed many buildings throughout the world, granted immunities to states, and did nothing hasty or rash. During his time, only one senator was condemned, but this was done by the Senate without his knowledge. For these reasons, he became like a god throughout the world and earned nothing but veneration both in life and in death.

5. Among his other sayings, this admirable one has been reported: when his friends were reproaching him for acting in too common a manner, he replied that he was the type of emperor to his citizens that he himself had hoped to have when he was a private citizen. After attaining great glory both at war and at home, he died from diarrhea near Seleucia in Isauria. He passed away in the sixty-third year, ninth month, and fourth day of his life, in the nineteenth year, sixth month, and fifteenth day of his reign. He was enrolled among the gods. He was the only one of all the emperors to be buried in the city. His bones were placed in a golden urn under his column, which was one hundred forty-four feet in height, in the forum that he had built. Such respect has been paid to his memory that, even up to our own time, emperors are not otherwise acclaimed in the Senate than “more fortunate than Augustus, better than Trajan!” So much has the fame of his goodness endured that he furnishes the most splendid example to those wishing to flatter or those truly offering praise.

6. After the death of Trajan, Aelius Hadrian was chosen emperor, not by any wish of Trajan, but through the efforts of Plotina, Trajan’s wife. Hadrian was also born in Italica in Spain. Trajan, while still alive, was unwilling to adopt him even though Hadrian was the son of his cousin. Envying the glory of Trajan, Hadrian immediately relinquished three provinces that Trajan had added to the empire, recalled the armies from Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia, and decided upon the Euphrates as the border of the empire. After trying to do the same thing in Dacia, he was deterred by his friends, lest many Roman citizens would be handed over to the barbarians. Trajan, after conquering Dacia, had brought a vast multitude of men there from the entire Roman world to cultivate the fields and populate the cities because Dacia was depleted of men by the long war with Decebalus.

7. He enjoyed peace throughout his entire reign and fought only once, through one of his governors. He traveled around the Roman world and built many things. He was most eloquent in Latin speech and learned in Greek. He did not have a great reputation for clemency, but was very diligent concerning the treasury and military discipline. He died in Campania at more than sixty years of age, in the twenty-first year, tenth month, and twenty-ninth day of his reign. The Senate was unwilling to grant him divine honors, but his successor, Titus Aurelius Antoninus Fulvius, vehemently demanded that this be done, and although all of the senators were in open opposition, he at last obtained his demand.

8. Therefore, Titus Antoninus Fulvius Boionius [Antoninus Pius], also named Pius, succeeded Hadrian. He was from a famous, but not very ancient family. He was a distinguished man who deservedly may be compared to Numa Pompilius, just as Trajan may be compared to Romulus. He lived in great honor as a private citizen and greater still during his reign. He was harsh to no one and kind to all. He had moderate glory in warfare, having desired to defend the provinces rather than enlarge them. He sought fair men to manage the state, honored good men, and detested wicked men, although he harmed none of them. He was venerated no less than feared by friendly kings, so much so that many barbarian nations would put aside their weapons and bring their quarrels and disputes before him and abide by his judgment. He was very rich before his reign, but greatly diminished his wealth by paying the soldiers and giving generously to his friends. He left the treasury quite rich however. He was called Pius on account of his clemency. He died at Lorium, his country seat, by the twelfth milestone from the city, at seventy-three years of age, in the twenty-third year of his reign. He was enrolled among the gods and justly consecrated.

9. Marcus Antoninus Verus [Marcus Aurelius] reigned after him. He was of unquestionably noble birth indeed, since the paternal side of his family descended from Numa Pompilius and the maternal side from a Salentine king. With him ruled Lucius Annius Antoninus Verus [Lucius Verus]. Then, for the first time, the Roman state had two rulers with equal authority. Up until this time it had always had a single Augustus.

10. These men were joined by family and affinity; for Lucius Verus had married the daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and Marcus Aurelius was the son-in-law of Antoninus Pius, having married his own cousin, Faustina Galeria the Younger, the daughter of Antoninus Pius. They waged war against the Parthians, who were rebelling for the first time since Trajan’s victory over them. Lucius Verus set out to manage that war. While he was at Antioch and around Armenia, he accomplished many great things through his generals. He captured Seleucia, the most noble city of Assyria, with four hundred thousand men. He secured a triumph for Parthia and celebrated it with his [adopted] brother, who was also his father-in-law. He died in Venetia after departing from the city of Concordia for Altinum. While he was sitting with his brother in his carriage, he had a sudden stroke, an affliction the Greeks call “apoplexy.” He was a man of insufficient self control, however, he did nothing outrageous due to respect for his brother. When he died in the eleventh year of his reign, he was enrolled among the gods.

11. Marcus Aurelius managed the state alone after him. He was a man who can more easily be admired than praised. He was of a most tranquil disposition from the beginning of his life, so much so that from infancy he changed his countenance neither in joy nor sorrow. He was devoted to the Stoic philosophy. He was a philosopher, not only in his manner of life, but in his education as well. He was so admired while still a youth that Hadrian had prepared to make him his successor, but after adopting Antoninus Pius, he wished him to become Antoninus’ son-in-law in order for him to become emperor in that way.

12. He was instructed in philosophy by Apollonius of Chalcedon, and in Greek literature by Sextus of Chaeronea, the grandson of Plutarch. Fronto, the highly renowned orator, taught him Latin literature. He acted as an equal to everyone in Rome, not becoming arrogant by his lofty position, and was manifestly generous. He managed the provinces with great kindness and restraint. Affairs were successfully conducted against the Germans under his leadership. He himself waged one war, against the Marcomanni, but it was more serious than any other war in memory and may be compared to the Punic wars. This war became all the more serious as entire armies were lost during it; for in his reign, after the victory over Persia, there was such a severe outbreak of plague that a majority of the people and almost all of the soldiers in Rome and throughout Italy and the provinces wasted away from weakness.

13. Therefore, when he had persevered with great effort and patience for three years at Carnuntum, he finished the Marcomannic war, which the Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Suebi, and all the other barbarians of that area waged with the Marcomanni. He killed many thousands of men, and after liberating Pannonia from servitude, he triumphed again in Rome with his son, Commodus Antoninus, whom he had already made Caesar. Since he had no money to disburse because the treasury was exhausted due to the cost of the war, and since he was unwilling to levy a tax on the provinces or Senate, he auctioned off golden vases, crystal and murra cups, his and his wife’s golden and silk clothing, and many jeweled ornaments from the imperial household in the Forum of Divine Trajan. This sale was held for two continuous months and brought in much gold. After his victory, however, he returned the money to the buyers who wished to return what they had bought, while causing no trouble to those who preferred to retain their purchases.

14. He permitted the more distinguished men to serve banquets with the same level of luxury and number of servants as he himself had. He was so splendid in putting on public shows after his victory that he is reported to have exhibited one hundred lions at the same time. After he had restored the state back to prosperity through his valor and clemency, he died in the eighteenth year of his reign, in the sixty-first year of his life, and was enrolled among the gods with all eagerly assenting.

15. His successor, Lucius Antoninus Commodus, was nothing like his father except that he also fought successfully against the Germans. He tried to change the name of the month of September so that it would be called “Commodus” after himself. He was depraved in his extravagance and lewdness. He often fought at a gladiator school with gladiatorial weapons and later also fought in the amphitheater with men of the same type. When he had reigned for twelve years and eight months after his father, he died so suddenly that it was thought that he was either strangled or killed by poison. He was so detested by everyone that, after he was dead, he was declared an enemy of the human race.

16. Pertinax, an elderly man who had reached seventy years of age, was appointed to rule the empire by a decree of the Senate when he was serving as urban prefect. He was slain on the eightieth day of his reign in an insurrection of the Praetorian Guard and by the treachery of Julianus.

17. Salvius Julianus, a nobleman who was most skilled at law, seized the government after him. He was the grandson of Salvius Julianus who composed the perpetual edict under Divine Hadrian. He was defeated by Severus at the Milvian bridge and was slain in the palace. He lived for seven months after he had begun to rule.

18. Henceforth, Septimius Severus took over the management of the Roman Empire. He was born in Africa, in the province of Tripolis, in the town of Leptis. He was the only emperor in all of history, both before and after, who was from Africa. He was first an official of the treasury, next a military tribune, and then, after many offices and positions, he ascended all the way to the management of the whole state. He wished for himself to be called “Pertinax,” in honor of that Pertinax who was killed by Julianus. He was very frugal and fierce by nature. He waged many wars successfully. Near Cyzicus, he killed Pescennius Niger, who had rebelled in Egypt and Syria. He defeated the Parthians, the interior Arabians, and the Adiabeni. He defeated the Arabians so thoroughly that he even established a province there. On account of these things, he was called “Parthicus,” “Arabicus,” and “Adiabenicus.” He restored many buildings throughout the entire Roman world. Also during his reign, Clodius Albinus, who had been an accomplice of Julianus in the murder of Pertinax, made himself Caesar in Gaul. He was defeated near Lugdunum and was slain.

19. In addition to glory in war, Severus was distinguished in civil pursuits as well. He was educated in literature and had achieved a full knowledge of philosophy. His last war was in Britain. In order to fortify the provinces that he had taken there with the utmost security, he constructed a wall from sea to sea, a distance of one hundred and thirty-three miles. He died quite old at Eboracum, in the sixteenth year and third month of his reign, and was pronounced divine. He left his sons, Geta and Bassianus, as his successors, but requested that the Senate bestow the name of “Antoninus” on Bassianus. Thus, he was called Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus and succeeded his father. Geta was declared a public enemy and died shortly thereafter.

20. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, also called “Caracalla,” was similar in character to his father, although a bit more harsh and threatening. He constructed magnificent baths in Rome which are called the “Antonine Baths,” but did nothing else memorable. He was unable to control his lust and took his own stepmother, Julia, as a wife. He died near Edessa in Osdroena as he was undertaking an expedition against the Parthians, in the sixth year and second month of his reign, having just passed his forty-third year. He was given a public funeral.

21. Next, Opilius Macrinus, the praetorian prefect, was made emperor with his son, Diadumenus. They accomplished nothing memorable due to the brevity of their reign, for it lasted only one year and two months. They were both slain together in a military revolt.

22. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus [Elagabalus] was selected emperor after them. He was thought to be the son of Antoninus Caracalla and was a priest of the temple of Heliogabalus. Although he arrived in Rome to the great expectation of the soldiers and Senate, he polluted himself by every type of disgraceful deed. He lived most shamelessly and obscenely, and two years and eight months into his reign, was killed with his mother, Symiasera, in a military revolt.

23. Aurelius Alexander [Severus Alexander] succeeded him while still very young, having been named Caesar by the army and Augustus by the Senate. After undertaking a war against the Persians, he gloriously defeated Xerxes, their king. He enforced very severe military discipline. He disbanded several entire legions that had raised a tumult. He had as an assistant or secretary, Ulpian, the compiler of law. He was quite popular in Rome. He died in a military revolt in Gaul, in the thirteenth year and ninth day of his reign. He was singularly devoted to his mother, Mamaea.

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